PHILIP I the Arab argent 247 après JC ancienne pièce vendre romaine bonne chance début i52323

<="" font="" color="#000000">Philip I the Arab -Roman Emperor: 244-249 A.D. -
Silver Antoninianus 22mm (2.93 grams) Rome mint 247 A.D.
Reference:RIC 4, C 136
IMPMIVLPHILIPPVSAVG - Radiate, draped and cuirassed bust right.
PMTRPIIIICOSIIPP - Felicitas standing left, holding caduceus and cornucopia.

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The caduceus fromGreek "heralds staff" is the staff carried byHermes inGreek mythology. The same staff was also borne by heralds in general, for example byIris, the messenger ofHera. It is a short staff entwined by twoserpents, sometimes surmounted by wings. In Roman iconography it was often depicted being carried in the left hand ofMercury, the messenger of the gods, guide of the dead and protector of merchants, shepherds, gamblers, liars, and thieves.

As a symbolic object it represents Hermes (or the Roman Mercury), and by extension trades, occupations or undertakings associated with the god. In laterAntiquity the caduceus provided the basis for theastrological symbol representing theplanet Mercury. Thus, through its use inastrology andalchemy, it has come to denote theelemental metal of the same name.

By extension of its association with Mercury/Hermes, the caduceus is also a recognized symbol of commerce and negotiation, two realms in which balanced exchange and reciprocity are recognized as ideals. This association is ancient, and consistent from the Classical period to modern times. The caduceus is also used as a symbol representing printing, again by extension of the attributes of Mercury (in this case associated with writing and eloquence).

The caduceus is sometimes mistakenly usedas a symbol of medicine and/or medical practice, especially inNorth America, because of widespread confusion with the traditional medical symbol, therod of Asclepius, which has only a single snake and no wings.

The term kerukeion denoted any heralds staff, not necessarily associated with Hermes in particular.

Lewis Richard Farnell (1909) in his study of the cult of Hermes assumed that the two snakes had simply developed out of ornaments of the shepherds crook used by heralds as their staff. This view has been rejected by later authors pointing to parallel iconography in the Ancient Near East. It has been argued that the staff or wand entwined by two snakes was itself representing a god in the pre-anthropomorphic era. Like theherm orpriapus, it would thus be a predecessor of the anthropomorphic Hermes of the classical era.

Ancient Near East

William Hayes Ward (1910) discovered that symbols similar to the classical caduceus sometimes appeared onMesopotamian cylinder seals. He suggested the symbol originated some time between 3000 and 4000 BCE, and that it might have been the source of the Greek caduceus.^{[10] A.L. Frothingham incorporated Dr. Wards research into his own work, published in 1916, in which he suggested that the prototype of Hermes was an "Oriental deity of Babylonian extraction" represented in his earliest form as a snake god. From this perspective, the caduceus was originally representative of Hermes himself, in his early form as the Underworld godNingishzida, "messenger" of the "Earth Mother". The caduceus is mentioned in passing byWalter Burkert[12] as "really the image of copulating snakes taken over from Ancient Near Eastern tradition".}

In Egyptian iconography, theDjedpillar is depicted as containing a snake in a frieze of theDendera Temple complex.

The rod of Moses and thebrazen serpent are frequently compared to the caduceus, especially as Moses is acting as a messenger of God to thePharaoh at the point in the narrative where he changes his staff into a serpent.^[13]

Classical antiquity

Mythology

TheHomeric hymnto Hermes relates how Hermes offered his lyre fashioned from a tortoise shell as compensation for thecattle he stole from his half brotherApollo. Apollo in return gave Hermes the caduceus as a gesture of friendship. The association with the serpent thus connects Hermes to Apollo, as later the serpent was associated with Asclepius, the "son of Apollo". The association of Apollo with the serpent is a continuation of the olderIndo-Europeandragon-slayer motif.Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher(1913) pointed out that the serpent as an attribute of both Hermes and Asclepius is a variant of the "pre-historic semi-chthonic serpent hero known at Delphi asPython", who in classical mythology is slain by Apollo.

One Greek myth of origin of the caduceus is part of the story of Tiresias, who found two snakes copulating and killed the female with his staff. Tiresias was immediately turned into a woman, and so remained until he was able to repeat the act with the male snake seven years later. This staff later came into the possession of the god Hermes, along with its transformative powers.

Another myth suggests that Hermes (or Mercury) saw two serpents entwined in mortal combat. Separating them with his wand he brought about peace between them, and as a result the wand with two serpents came to be seen as a sign of peace.

In Rome, Livy refers to the caduceator who negotiated peace arrangements under the diplomatic protection of the caduceus he carried.

Iconography

In some vase paintings ancient depictions of the Greek kerukeion are somewhat different from the commonly seen modern representation. These representations feature the two snakes atop the staff (or rod), crossed to create a circle with the heads of the snakes resembling horns. This old graphic form, with an additional crossbar to the staff, seems to have provided the basis for the graphicalsign of Mercury (☿) used inGreek astrologyfrom Late Antiquity.

Use in alchemy and occultism

As the symbol of both theplanet and themetal named for Mercury, the caduceus became an important symbol inalchemy.

Thecrucified serpent was also revived as an alchemical symbol for fixatio, andJohn Donne(Sermons 10:190) uses "crucified Serpent" as a title ofJesus Christ.

Symbol of commerce

A simplified variant of the caduceus is to be found in dictionaries, indicating a “commercial term” entirely in keeping with the association of Hermes with commerce. In this form the staff is often depicted with two winglets attached and the snakes are omitted (or reduced to a small ring in the middle). The Customs Service of the formerGerman Democratic Republic employed the caduceus, bringing its implied associations with thresholds, translators, and commerce, in the service medals they issued their staff.

Misuse as symbol of medicine

It is relatively common, especially in the United States, to find the caduceus, with its two snakes and wings, used as a symbol of medicine instead of the correct rod of Asclepius, with only a single snake. This usage is erroneous, popularised largely as a result of the adoption of the caduceus as its insignia by theUS Army medical corps in 1902 at the insistence of a single officer (though there are conflicting claims as to whether this was Capt. Frederick P. Reynolds or Col. John R. van Hoff).

The rod of Asclepius is the dominant symbol for professional healthcare associations in the United States. One survey found that 62% of professional healthcare associations used the rod of Asclepius as their symbol. The same survey found that 76% of commercial healthcare organizations used the Caduceus symbol. The author of the study suggests the difference exists because professional associations are more likely to have a real understanding of the two symbols, whereas commercial organizations are more likely to be concerned with the visual impact a symbol will have in selling their products.

The initial errors leading to its adoption and the continuing confusion it generates are well known to medical historians. The long-standing and abundantly attested historical associations of the caduceus with commerce, theft, deception, and death are considered by many to be inappropriate in a symbol used by those engaged in the healing arts. This has occasioned significant criticism of the use of the caduceus in a medical context.

InRoman mythology, Felicitas (meaning "good luck" or "fortune") was the goddess or personification of good luck and success. The word felicitas, "luck", is also the source of the word and name felicity. She played an important role inRomes state religion during theempire, and was frequently portrayed oncoins. She became a prominent symbol of the wealth and prosperity of theRoman Empire.

Felicitas was unknown before the mid-2nd century BC, when a temple was dedicated to her in theVelabrum in the Campus Martius byLucius Licinius Lucullus, using booty from his 151–150 BC campaign in Spain. The temple was destroyed by a fire during the reign ofClaudius and was never rebuilt.

Another temple in Rome was planned byJulius Caesar and was erected after his death byMarcus Aemilius Lepidus on the site of theCuria Hostilia, which had been restored byLucius Cornelius Sulla but demolished by Caesar in 44 BC. This temple no longer existed by the time ofHadrian, and its site probably lies under the church ofSanti Martina e Luca.

Inancient Roman culture, felicitas (from the Latinadjective felix, "fruitful, blessed, happy, lucky") is a condition of divinely inspired productivity, blessedness, orhappiness. Felicitas could encompass both a womans fertility, and a generals luck or good fortune. The divine personification of Felicitas wascultivated as a goddess. Although felicitas may be translated as "good luck," and the goddess Felicitas shares some characteristics and attributes withFortuna, the two were distinguished inRoman religion.Fortuna was unpredictable and her effects could be negative, as the existence of an altar to Mala Fortuna ("Bad Luck") acknowledges.Felicitas, however, always had a positive significance. She appears withseveral epithets that focus on aspects of her divine power.

Felicitas had a temple in Rome as early as the mid-2nd century BC, and during the Republican era was honored at twoofficial festivals ofRoman state religion, on July 1 in conjunction withJuno and October 9 as Fausta Felicitas. Felicitas continued to play an important role inImperial cult, and was frequently portrayed oncoins as a symbol of the wealth and prosperity of the Roman Empire. Her primary attributes are thecaduceus andcornucopia.The English word "felicity" derives from felicitas.

As virtue or quality

Phallic relief with the inscription "Felicitas dwells here"

In its religious sense, felix means "blessed, under the protection or favour of the gods; happy." That which is felix has achieved the pax divom, a state of harmony or peace with the divine world. The word derives fromIndo-European *dhe(i)l, meaning "happy, fruitful, productive, full of nourishment." Related Latin words include femina, "woman" (a person who provides nourishment or suckles); felo, "to suckle" in regard to an infant; filius, "son" (a person suckled); and probably fello, fellare, "to performfellatio", with an originally non-sexual meaning of "to suck". The continued magical association of sexual potency, increase, and general good fortune in productivity is indicated by the inscription Hic habitat Felicitas ("Felicitas dwells here")^{[8] on anapotropaic relief of aphallus at a bakery inPompeii.}

In archaic Roman culture, felicitas was a quality expressing the close bonds betweenreligion and agriculture. Felicitas was at issue when the suovetaurilia sacrifice conducted byCato the Elder ascensor in 184 BC was challenged as having been unproductive, perhaps for vitium, ritual error. In the following three years Rome had been plagued by a number of ill omens and prodigies (prodigia), such as severe storms, pestilence, and "showers of blood," which had required a series of expiations (supplicationes). The speech Cato gave to justify himself is known as the Oratio de lustri sui felicitate, "Speech on the Felicitas of hisLustrum", and survives only as a possible quotation by a later source. Cato says that a lustrum should be found to have produced felicitas "if the crops had filled up the storehouses, if the vintage had been abundant, if the olive oil had flowed deliberately from the groves", regardless of whatever else might have occurred. The efficacy of a ritual might be thus expressed as its felicitas.

The ability to promote felicitas became proof of ones excellence and divine favor. Felicitas was simultaneously a divine gift, a quality that resided within an individual, and a contagious capacity for generating productive conditions outside oneself: it was a form of "charismatic authority". Cicero lists felicitas as one of the four virtues of the exemplary general, along with knowledge ofmilitary science (scientia rei militaris),virtus (both "valor" and "virtue"), and auctoritas, "authority." Virtus was a regular complement to felicitas, which was not thought to attach to those who were unworthy. Cicero attributed felicitas particularly toPompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great"), and distinguished this felicitas even from the divine good luck enjoyed by successful generals such asFabius Maximus,Marcellus,Scipio the Younger andMarius.

The sayings (sententiae) ofPublilius Syrus are often attached to divine qualities, including Felicitas: "The peoples Felicitas is powerful when she is merciful" (potens misericors publica est Felicitas).

Epithets

Epithets of Felicitas include:

• Augusta , the goddess in her association with the emperor and Imperial cult .
• Fausta ("Favored, Fortunate"), a state divinity cultivated on October 9 in conjunction with Venus Victrix and the Genius Populi Romani ("Genius" of the Roman People, also known as the Genius Publicus).
• Publica, the "public" Felicitas; that is, the aspect of the divine force that was concerned with the res publica or commonwealth, or with the Roman People (Populus Romanus).
• Temporum, the Felicitas "of the times", a title which emphasize the felicitas being experienced in current circumstances.

Republic

Thecult of Felicitas is first recorded in the mid-2nd century BC, when atemple was dedicated to her byLucius Licinius Lucullus, grandfather of the famous Lucullus, using booty from his military campaigns inSpain in 151–150 BC. Predecessor to a noted connoisseur of art, Lucullus obtained and dedicated several statues looted byMummius fromGreece, including works byPraxiteles: the Thespiades, a statue group of theMuses brought fromThespiae, and aVenus. This Temple of Felicitas was among several that had a secondary function as art museums, and was recommended byCicero along with theFortuna Huiusce DieiTemple of for those who enjoyed viewing art but lacked the means to amass private collections. The temple was located in theVelabrum in the Vicus Tuscus of theCampus Martius, along a route associated withtriumphs: the axle ofJulius Caesars triumphalchariot in 46 BC is supposed to have broken in front of it. The temple was destroyed by a fire during the reign ofClaudius, though the Muses were rescued. It was not rebuilt at this site.

Sulla identified himself so closely with the quality of felicitcas that he adopted the agnomen (nickname) Felix. His domination asdictator resulted from civil war and unprecedented military violence within the city of Rome itself, but he legitimated his authority by claiming that the mere fact of his victory was proof he was felix and enjoyed the divine favor of the gods. Republican precedent was to regard a victory as belonging to the Roman people as a whole, as represented by thetriumphal procession at which the honored general submitted public offerings at theTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus at theCapitol, and Sulla thus established an important theological element for the later authority of the emperor. Although he established no new temple for Felicitas, he celebrated games (ludi circenses) in her honor.

On July 1 and October 9, Felicitas received a sacrifice in Capitolio, on theCapitoline Hill, on the latter date as Fausta Felicitas in conjunction with the Genius Publicus ("PublicGenius") andVenus Victrix. These observances probably took place at an altar or small shrine (aedicula), not a separatetemple precinct. TheActs of the Arval Brothers (1st century AD) prescribe a cow as the sacrifice for Felicitas. Pompey established a shrine for Felicitas athis new theater and temple complex, which used the steps to the Temple of Venus Victrix as seating. Felicitas was cultivated with Honor and Virtue, and she may have shared her shrine there withVictory, as she did in the Imperial era as Felicitas Caesaris (Caesars Felicitas) atAmeria. Pompeys collocation of deities may have been intended to parallel the Capitoline grouping.

A fourth cult site for Felicitas in Rome had been planned by Caesar, and possibly begun before his death. Work on the temple was finished byLepidus on the site of theCuria Hostilia, which had been restored by Sulla, destroyed by fire in 52 BC, and demolished by Caesar in 44 BC. This temple seems not to have existed by the time ofHadrian. Its site probably lies under the church ofSanti Luca e Martina. v It has been suggested that anIonic capital and atufa wall uncovered at the site are the only known remains of the temple.

Felicitas was awatchword used by Julius Caesars troops at theBattle of Thapsus, the names of deities and divine personifications being often recorded for this purpose in the late Republic. Felicitas Iulia ("Julian Felicitas") was the name of acolony inRoman Spain that was refounded under Caesar and known also as Olisipo, present-dayLisbon, Portugal.

During the Republic, only divine personifications known to have had a temple or public altar were featured on coins, among them Felicitas. On the only extant Republican coin type, Felicitas appears as a bust and wearing adiadem.

Empire

Felicitas Temporum represented by a pair of cornucopiae on a denarius (193-194 AD) issued under Pescennius Niger

A calendar from Cumae records that a supplicatio was celebrated on April 16 for the Felicitas of the Empire, in honor of the dayAugustus was first acclaimed imperator. In extant Roman coinage, Felicitas appears with acaduceus only during the Imperial period. The earliest known example is Felicitas Publica on a dupondius issued underGalba. Felicitas Temporum ("Prosperity of the Times"), reflecting aGolden Age ideology, was among the innovative virtues that began to appear during the reigns ofTrajan andAntoninus Pius.Septimius Severus, whose reign followed the exceedingly brief tenure ofPertinax and unsatisfactory conditions underCommodus, used coinage to express his efforts toward restoring thePax Romana, with themes such as Felicitas Temporum and Felicitas Saeculi, "Prosperity of the Age" (saeculum), prevalent in the years 200 to 202. Some Imperial coins use these phrases with images of women and children in the emperors family.

When the Empire came under Christian rule, the personified virtues that had been cultivated as deities could be treated as abstract concepts. Felicitas Perpetua Saeculi ("Perpetual Blessedness of the Age") appears on a coin issued underConstantine, the first emperor to convert to Christianity.

Marcus Julius Philippus or Philippus I Arabs (c. 204–249), known inEnglish as Philip the Arab or formerly (prior to World War II) in English as Philip the Arabian, was aRoman Emperor from 244 to 249.

Little is known about Philips early life and political career. He was born inShahba, about 55 miles southeast ofDamascus, in theRoman province ofSyria. Philip has the nickname "the Arab" because he had family who had originated in theArabian peninsula, believed to be distant descendants of the prestigious Baleed family of Aleppo. Philip was the son of a Julius Marinus, a local Roman citizen, possibly of some importance. Many historians^{[1][2][3] agree that he was of Arab descent who gainedRoman citizenship through his father, a man of considerable influence. Many citizens from the provinces took Roman names upon acquiring citizenship. This makes tracing his Arabic blood line difficult. However, it is documented that Rome used theGhassan tribe from theAzd ofYemen as vassals to keep the neighboring northern Arabs in check.}

The name of Philips mother is unknown, but sources refer to a brother,Gaius Julius Priscus, a member of thePraetorian guard underGordian III (238–244). In 234, Philip marriedMarcia Otacilia Severa, daughter of a Roman Governor. They had two children: a son named Marcus Julius Philippus Severus (Philippus II) in 238 and according to numismatic evidence they had a daughter called Julia Severa or Severina, whom the ancient Roman sources dont mention.

Philip became a member of thePretorian Guard during the reign of the emperorAlexander Severus, who was a Syrian. In ancient Rome the Pretorian Guard was closely associated with the emperor, serving among other things as the emperors bodyguard.

Political career

In 243, duringGordian IIIs campaign againstShapur I of Persia, thePraetorian prefectTimesitheus died under unclear circumstances. At the suggestion of his brother Priscus, Philip became the new Praetorian prefect, with the intention that the two brothers would control the young Emperor and rule the Roman world as unofficial regents. Following a military defeat, Gordian III died in 244 under circumstances that are still debated. While some claim that Philip conspired in his murder, other accounts (including one coming from the Persian point of view) state that Gordian died in battle. Whatever the case, Philip assumed the purple following Gordians death. According to Edward Gibbon:

His rise from so obscure a station to the first dignities of the empire seems to prove that he was a bold and able leader. But his boldness prompted him to aspire to the throne, and his abilities were employed to supplant, not to serve, his indulgent master.

Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants, and was aware that he had to return toRome in order to secure his position with thesenate. He thus travelled west, after concluding a peace treaty with Shapur I, and left his brother Priscus as extraordinary ruler of the Eastern provinces. In Rome he was confirmedAugustus, and nominated his young son Caesar and heir.

Philips rule started with yet anotherGermanic incursion on the provinces ofPannonia and the Goths invaded Moesia (modern-day Serbia and Bulgaria) in the Danube frontier. They were finally defeated in the year 248, but thelegions were not satisfied with the result, probably due to a low share of the plunder, if any. Rebellion soon arose andTiberius Claudius Pacatianus was proclaimed emperor by the troops. The uprising was crushed and Philip nominatedGaius Messius Quintus Decius as governor of the province. Future events would prove this to be a mistake. Pacatianus revolt was not the only threat to his rule: in the East, Marcus Jotapianus led another uprising in response to the oppressive rule ofPriscus and the excessive taxation of the Eastern provinces. Two other usurpers, Marcus Silbannacus andSponsianus, are reported to have started rebellions without much success.

In AprilA.D. 248 (April 1000A.U.C.), Philip had the honour of leading the celebrations of the one thousandth birthday of Rome, which according to tradition wasfounded in 753 BC byRomulus. He combined the anniversary with the celebration of Romes alleged tenth saeculum. According to contemporary accounts, the festivities were magnificent and included spectacular games,ludi saeculares, and theatrical presentations throughout the city. In the coliseum, more than 1,000 gladiators were killed along with hundreds of exotic animals including hippos, leopards, lions, giraffes, and one rhinoceros. The events were also celebrated in literature, with several publications, includingAsinius Quadratuss History of a Thousand Years, specially prepared for the anniversary.

Despite the festive atmosphere, discontent in the legions was growing. Decius (249–251) was proclaimed Emperor by the Danubian armies in the spring of 249 and immediately marched to Rome. Philips army met the usurper near modernVerona that summer. Decius won the battle and Philip was killed sometime in September 249, either in the fighting or assassinated by his own soldiers who were eager to please the new ruler. Philips eleven-year-old son and heir may have been killed with his father and Priscus disappeared without a trace.

Religious beliefs

Some later traditions, first mentioned in the historianEusebius in his Ecclesiastical History, held that Philip was the firstChristian Roman emperor. This tradition seems to be based on reports in Eusebius that Philip allegedly had once entered a Christian service on Easter, after having been required by a bishop to confess his sins. Later versions located this event in Antioch.

However, historians generally identify the later Emperor Constantine, baptised on his deathbed, as the first Christian emperor, and generally describe Philips adherence to Christianity as dubious, because non-Christian writers do not mention the fact, and because throughout his reign, Philip to all appearances (coinage, etc.) continued to follow thestate religion. Critics ascribe Eusebius claim as probably due to the tolerance Philip showed towards Christians.Saint Quirinus of Rome was, according to a legendary account, the son of Philip the Arab.